United States Court Types and History

United States Court System and Types

The U.S. court system remains the cornerstone of American justice, ensuring laws are interpreted, applied, and enforced fairly. However, with multiple levels of courts, each with its jurisdiction, understanding how the system works can be challenging. Therefore, this article simplifies the dynamics of the US court system in terms of the tiers of courts and the relevant courts for accessing various legal records, filing cases, or following proceedings.

How To Find Court Records by Court Type

Accessing court records in the United States depends on the type of court involved, as each has its own record-keeping system and policies. While some records are readily available online, others may require in-person visits or formal requests. Therefore, it is important to understand how different courts maintain their records to make the search process seamless for you.

You can access federal court records online, through the Public Access to Court Electronic Records (PACER) service, or via public access terminals at the clerk's office of the court where the matter was initiated. For Supreme Court cases, dockets and filings can be accessed on the U.S. Supreme Court website. If you need access to paper case files, you may need to visit the court where the case was filed, one of the Federal Records Centers (FRC), or, for older cases, the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). Bankruptcy courts also offer a Voice Case Information System, a free 24/7 phone service that provides basic bankruptcy case information.

Accessing state court records can be more complex, as each state has its own system. Many states provide online case search portals, allowing you to look up cases by name, case number, or jurisdiction. However, if online access is unavailable, you may need to visit the county clerk's office at the court where the case was filed. Other online third-party platforms like RecordsFinder, CourtListener, Justia Dockets & Filings, and LexisNexis provide access to court records, making it easier to find any information you may need.

Overview of the U.S. Court System

The United States operates a dual court system, comprising federal and state courts, each with distinct jurisdictions and responsibilities.

The federal court system consists of three tiers. At the trial level, U.S. District Courts have original jurisdiction over cases involving federal statutes, constitutional disputes, and disputes between states. Decisions from these courts can be appealed to the U.S. Courts of Appeals, also known as circuit courts, which review lower court rulings for legal or procedural errors. At the apex is the U.S. Supreme Court, the highest judicial authority. This court has original jurisdiction in limited cases, such as disputes between states and cases involving ambassadors or other prominent ministers. It also holds the final appellate jurisdiction over all federal court cases and state court cases that border on constitutional or federal law matters.

Each state operates its own independent court system, typically comprising trial courts, intermediate appellate courts (in some states), and a state supreme court, which serves as the highest authority on matters of state law. Since state courts oversee cases under state law, most civil and criminal proceedings fall within their jurisdiction. However, some cases may be eligible for both federal and state jurisdiction, allowing parties to choose where to file.

In addition to federal and state courts, the U.S. legal system includes Tribal Courts and Military Courts. Tribal courts have jurisdiction over legal matters within Native American reservations, applying tribal law in accordance with federal statutes. Likewise, Military Courts operate under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, adjudicating over cases involving service members.

At the core of the U.S. legal system lies the common law principles, meaning courts rely not only on statutes but also on legal precedents. Judges interpret past rulings to guide their decisions, ensuring that the law evolves in response to new circumstances. 

To provide a clearer understanding of how the U.S. court system is structured, the table below provides an overview of these court systems, their jurisdiction, and examples of courts within each system.

Types of Courts in the U.S.

The United States judicial system is organized into various courts, each serving specific functions and handling distinct types of cases. Here is an overview of the primary court types:

Federal Courts

Federal courts adjudicate cases involving federal laws, the U.S. Constitution, and disputes between states. It is divided into three primary levels:

• U.S. District Courts: These are the trial courts of the federal system where both civil and criminal cases are initially filed and heard. District courts determine facts, apply federal laws, and resolve disputes. There are 94 district courts, each serving a specific geographic area. Some districts have specialized courts, created to handle complex legal matters that require specific expertise. For example, bankruptcy courts oversee bankruptcy filings and financial restructuring cases, ensuring fair debt resolution for individuals and businesses. The United States Tax Court resolves disputes between taxpayers and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), interpreting federal tax laws. The United States Court of Federal Claims handles monetary claims against the U.S. government. Additionally, the United States Court of International Trade adjudicates cases related to tariffs, customs regulations, and international trade disputes.
• U.S. Courts of Appeals: Also known as circuit courts, review decisions from the district courts within their respective circuits, focusing on correcting legal errors and ensuring consistent application of the law. There are twelve regional federal circuits, each overseeing appeals from district courts within its jurisdiction. Additionally, the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals has nationwide jurisdiction over specialized cases, including those involving patents, international trade, and claims against the federal government.
• U.S. Supreme Court: This is the highest court in the nation. It has discretionary appellate jurisdiction over federal and state court cases involving constitutional or federal law issues. While primarily an appellate court, the Supreme Court also has original jurisdiction in a limited number of cases. For example, it has the authority to hear disputes between states, such as conflicts over water rights or territorial boundaries, as well as cases involving foreign diplomats and high-ranking ministers.

State Courts

Each state operates its own court system, which functions independently of the federal courts. While the organization of state courts varies, most systems have the following three-tiered hierarchy:

• Trial Courts: These courts handle criminal prosecutions, civil lawsuits, family law matters, probate cases, landlord-tenant disputes, and traffic violations. Some states divide their trial courts into general jurisdiction courts, which hear major civil and criminal cases, and limited jurisdiction courts, which handle minor offenses such as misdemeanors and small claims.

To address specific legal matters efficiently, many states have established specialized courts that focus on particular areas of law. Family courts oversee divorces, child custody disputes, and domestic violence cases, while probate courts handle wills, estates, and guardianship matters. Small claims courts provide a streamlined process for settling low-dollar-value disputes to prevent prolonged litigation.

• Appellate Courts: These courts review trial court decisions to determine whether procedural errors or misinterpretations of law occurred. However, not all states have intermediate appellate courts, as some allow appeals to proceed directly to the state's supreme court.
• State Supreme Courts: This is the highest judicial authority within a state. They review appeals from lower courts, resolve disputes over state statutes, and issue rulings that set binding precedents within their jurisdictions. Unlike the U.S. Supreme Court, state supreme courts often have mandatory jurisdiction over certain types of appeals, particularly in cases involving capital punishment, election disputes, and constitutional challenges to state laws.

Although state supreme courts generally interpret state laws and constitutions, their decisions can sometimes overlap with federal law. If a case involves federal constitutional issues, it can be appealed from the state supreme court to the U.S. Supreme Court for final review. However, if a ruling is purely based on state law, it is binding within the state and cannot be overturned by the federal courts.

Tribal Courts

Tribal courts operate independently of federal and state courts, administering justice within Native American tribes. They have jurisdiction over legal matters involving tribal members, as well as cases concerning non-tribal members on tribal lands. With approximately 400 tribal justice systems across the nation, each court reflects the sovereignty and legal traditions of its respective tribe.

The scope of tribal court authority varies based on federal laws, treaties, and agreements between tribes and the U.S. government. While these courts handle a wide range of cases, including civil disputes, family law matters, and criminal offenses committed by tribal members, their jurisdiction over non-tribal individuals is limited by federal law. However, under the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA), some tribal courts may prosecute non-native individuals for domestic violence offenses committed against tribal members. Although tribal court decisions remain final and binding within the jurisdiction of the tribe, appeals may still lie to the tribal appellate courts or, in limited circumstances, federal courts.

Military Courts

Military courts function as a separate legal system for U.S. military personnel under the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). They address offenses ranging from minor infractions to serious crimes within the armed forces. The military justice system primarily relies on courts-martial, which vary in severity and procedure based on the nature of the offense:

• Summary Court-Martial: Handles minor offenses with simplified procedures.
• Special Court-Martial: Handles intermediate-level offenses, akin to misdemeanor courts.
• General Court-Martial: Handles serious crimes like desertion, assault, or espionage, and usually imposes sanctions such as dishonorable discharge, long-term imprisonment, or even the death penalty in extreme cases.

Decisions from courts-martial can be appealed within the military justice system, culminating in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, which exercises nationwide appellate jurisdiction over members of the armed forces on active duty and other persons subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice. Their decisions can, in rare cases, be reviewed by the United States Supreme Court.

Difference Between Civil and Criminal Cases

Civil cases arise from disputes between individuals, businesses, or organizations regarding legal rights and duties. Unlike criminal cases, which focus on punishment, civil cases seek remedies such as monetary compensation, injunctions, or specific performance. Common examples include contract disputes, where one party alleges a breach of agreement, property conflicts over ownership or tenancy issues, family law matters like divorce or child custody, and personal injury claims, where a party seeks compensation for harm caused by the negligence of another. The burden of proof in civil cases is "preponderance of the evidence," meaning the plaintiff must show that their claim is more likely to be true than false.

Criminal cases, on the other hand, involve acts that violate criminal laws and are considered harmful to society. These cases are prosecuted by the government rather than private individuals, with potential penalties including fines, imprisonment, or even the death penalty in certain jurisdictions. Criminal offenses are classified into misdemeanors and felonies, depending on their severity. Misdemeanors, such as petty theft or disorderly conduct, generally result in fines or short jail sentences, whereas felonies like murder, robbery, or fraud may result in lengthy prison terms and, in some cases, capital punishment.

The burden of proof in a criminal case is significantly higher than in civil cases. The prosecution must establish the defendant's guilt "beyond a reasonable doubt," ensuring that there is no reasonable alternative explanation for the crime other than the defendant's culpability.

Certain facts can give rise to both civil and criminal proceedings. For example, in an assault case, the state may file criminal charges against the defendant, seeking imprisonment, while the victim may simultaneously bring a civil lawsuit for damages resulting from medical expenses, lost wages, or emotional distress. Additionally, federal and state courts handle both types of cases, with jurisdiction determined by factors such as the nature of the offense, the parties involved, and where the incident occurred.

Understanding the distinction between civil and criminal law is essential, as each follows different procedures, legal standards, and consequences. While civil matters primarily focus on resolving disputes and compensating victims, criminal cases aim to enforce laws, punish offenders, and protect public safety.

Which Court Handles Your Case?

Determining which court will hear a case depends on the type of legal matter and the jurisdiction. Courts are divided into federal, state, tribal, and military systems, each handling specific cases based on the applicable laws. The table below provides a general overview of the various courts responsible for different types of cases.

FAQs About The U.S. Court System